In this addendum or maybe as appendix, I want to address a few specific topics in comment style relating the essay on Manichaeism. First is a comparison with some other world religions regarding the source of good and evil and their notion of salvation. Second is the relation of Shiism to Manichaeism and thirdly is an interpretation of Manichaeism as a framework that structures the human experience.
Zoroastrianism first, Gnosis and Manichaeism later, accept that evil is present in the world as an equal and opposite power to good. Evil is a power that cannot be ignored, but it must be defeated and humans are in the thick of this battle. These religions have teachings that instruct the humans in the ways the power of evil can be defeated. This involves knowing, as in perceiving, these teachings, acting on them and adhering to the taught life style rules.
The idea that good and evil are equal in power and origin is called being 'coeval', meaning of equal origin. In this the Semitic religions of Islam and Judaism, along with Christianity differ. Their view is that evil is caused and originated by a being or force that fell out with the creator, who created it at first.
A fallen angle is the often used term and Christianity gives it the name 'Lucifer', which oddly enough means 'light bearer'. This name hints at something that is opposite to 'darkness', but that is another topic. The Islam tradition uses the name Iblis and the Judean name I don't know, but I think it means 'the adversary'.
The problem of the origin of evil is a faxing one, but it helps to relativize it to consider that nobody ever has a problem about the source of good. That is accepted as being 'just so', going without saying. This is something I entertain for myself at times and in addition I remind myself that in one of the Psalms of the Old Testament, Jaweh says that he created evil! Things are not simple, but they are interesting, keeping us on our toes, improving the good! No?
Salvation:
The Manichaean concept of salvation is that this is the responsibility of the individual, who has the choice to do one or the other. The individual has the responsibility 'to work his [her] own salvation', as the apostle Paul declares in one of his letters in the New Testament. Mani is a prophet as he says about himself, but he is not a saviour. The saying of Jesus "No one comes to the Father but through Me", cannot be found in Mani's teachings. The idea of the personal saviour is not present in the Islam either, but it does have a strong emphasis on following 'the ways of the Prophet' Muhamad (blessed be his name).
Another variation among these three religions is the nature of the personal attitude that is required for salvation. Christianity requires faith, while Islam demands submission as precondition for salvation. For the Manichaean believer it is the acquisition of knowledge, in the sense of perception that is the means to salvation.
One additional observation is that Manichaeism knows the salvation of the entire cosmos as the end state of the battle that takes place on this earth in its state of intermingling of the powers of darkness and light and in which every human being has a role to play. This is quite an amazing vision when you think of it!
Manichaeism originated in Persian culture and has at its core the Iranian teachings of Zoroaster and traces of both can be found in the Shia sect of Islam. For example the custom of prayer five times a day is found in Zoroastrianism, the term 'minaret' means 'fire tower', which is a reminder of same religion's custom of maintaining a lighted fire, to this day.
'The Concise Encyclopaedia of Islam' has many references to Manichaean influences in its entries 'Manichaeism' and 'Shi'ism'.
For instance, page 484 column 2 states: "The actual historical emergence of Shi'ism … begins … with a procession of penitents who had walked out of the city of Kufah (685) chanting 'rise to avenge Husyan!' It was a suicidal desire to seek martyrdom." In this same column continues down a little further with: "The circumstance suggest that in actuality the Tawwabun were Islamicised Manicheans. Manichaeism extolled martyrdom in imitation of their religious founder Mani …".
There are many other references that show that the remnants of Manichaeism in Shi'ism give it a different character from the Sunny version of Islam. It would take a significant study to gain a sufficient understanding of that Manichaean influence, which is not my aim here.
However, I do mention this here, in order to draw attention to this poorly understood influence and its effects. An in depth study would certainly be of value in enhancing our understanding of this fierce and painful conflict within the 'House of Islam' and help mitigate it.
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Manichaeism as one of three emerging syncretic beliefs:
There is a common aspect to the cultural setting of emerging Christianity, Manichaeism and Islam, even though the three processes were separated by several centuries. Each structure creates a new order from the mixture of concepts, values and customs that circulate in society of their time.
The confluence of influences of the time allow for many different perspectives and beliefs, which prove satisfactory for a short time only. The well-known Greek mystery religions of Antiquity are one example, with the many Gnostic beliefs as another. None of these providing much stability apart from the curiosity value that they offered. Such unfocussed activity takes much energy to little affect and utility.
Organized religions organize, which is an important outcome and advantage in a complex society with many differing views and value sets. Each of the three mentioned major religions combined different handed down traditions and value sets to construct a new and inspiring way forward. They did so by defining new attitudes, value sets and creating a perspective on the future that was worthy of serious effort and dedication.
Not all were equally successful, but they did lead to new cultural expressions and achievements that still have value for us today.
The Contribution by Manichaeism:
Manichaeism was the one single Gnostic religion to come into the majors so to speak. Other movements such as the Valentinians or the Marcions came and went, never to spread beyond the local world of Antiquity around the Mediterranean Sea. Mani casts his net far and wide and wanted to include mankind as he proclaimed himself.
His movement did spread that way indeed, but encountered much controversy. It affected many different existing religions, because in its search for universality it had borrowed from them and so conflicted with them. Due to its own success, it became a threat as it grew more powerful. This resulted in Manichaeism becoming viewed as a heretical belief by Zoroastrians, Gnostics - Plotinus, Christians and Muslims alike. But, in this it also influenced each one of those adversaries and their tradition, as a radical element affecting the whole chemical solution!
A comment regarding a finding made in my own studies. Each religion has many aspects, but the one often neglected is that it creates and defines identity for the believer and its community. Humans cannot function without having a believable and valued identity. They will fight and die for it, because in the end that is what human existence is about. Manichaeism did not offer a strongly defined identity to its followers and that may have led to their merging with those beliefs it had borrowed from.
Mani as Prophet:
Mani stands out among the prophets of the world religions as the most earth bound. We know his birth place and date, his parents and the community in which he grew up. He relates his revelations, writes about them, composes his own teachings in half a dozen books and travels extensively. In the end he fails to convince the new Emperor about the value of his teachings, is jailed and dies in chains.
This makes for a down to earth prophet who does have revelations, but also acquires and composes his own teachings. Mani's teachings are not teachings passed down to him, as that is called at times, but are obtained through human effort and insight.
In Mani we have an example of a combination of revelation and acquisition. The mission is a matter of revelation, but the teachings are acquired through human effort. It is in this that Mani differs from the prophets of the other world religions. It may also have been a factor in Manichaeism being declared a heresy by the authorities of those major religions.
However, as a development in the human tradition of religious revelation, it is a very telling one. For the first time, we have a fully identifiable and historical human being who is a prophet and functions like one. This perspective suggests that the foundations of religious traditions are at least as human, as they are divine.